The article is now available in ZENODO.
Paper Information
Original article on AOG: https://www.andishe2.online/en-from-tus-to-london--a-comparative-study-of-the-lives-and-legacies-of-ferdowsi-and-shakespeare--part-2
Research Institute: Andishe Online Germany (AOG)
Author: Faramarz Tabesh
This research is presented in two parts: Part I and Part II
Section: Excerpt from the "Topics from the University"
Subject Area: Literature and History
Original Language: Persian (Farsi)
Persian Version Release Date: May 5, 2025
Release Date of English Version: May 19, 2025
Translation: Translated into English and German by the author
Archival Code:
hc j,s jh gknk-dö #C,ia jxfdrd hc cknäd , ldvhe tvn,sd , aös#dv_rslj n,l
From Tus to London:
A Comparative Study of the Lives and
Legacies of Ferdowsi and Shakespeare
Part II
Part Two
Global Impact of Shakespeare’s Literature
Introduction
William Shakespeare (1564–1616) stands among history’s greatest writers, leaving an indelible mark on literature, language, theater, and global culture. His body of work—from his plays to his sonnets—has inspired countless generations of artists, scholars, and thinkers around the world.
Impact on the English Language
•
Neologisms and Phrases: Shakespeare introduced roughly 1,700 words into English¹²² and popularized idioms such as
“heart of gold” and
“break the ice.”
•
Linguistic Enrichment:
His inventive use of vocabulary and syntax expanded the expressive
capacity of English, making him one of the most frequently quoted
authors in the English-speaking world.
Impact on World Literature
•
Timeless Themes: Plays like
Hamlet¹²³,
Macbeth¹²⁴, and
Romeo and Juliet¹²⁵ explore universal motifs—love, betrayal, ambition, and power—that have resonated with writers from
Charles Dickens¹²⁶ and
Herman Melville¹²⁷ to contemporary novelists.
•
Literary Inspiration:
Generations of authors have borrowed plot elements, character
archetypes, and stylistic flourishes from Shakespeare’s dramatic works.
Impact on Theater and Cinema
•
Modern Theater Foundations: Shakespeare’s complex characterizations and layered narrative structures helped shape the conventions of Western drama.
•
Global Performances: His plays have been translated into over one hundred languages¹²⁸ and remain in continuous production on stages worldwide.
•
Film Adaptations: Movies such as The Lion King
(inspired by Hamlet¹²⁹) and Baz Luhrmann’s Romeo + Juliet illustrate Shakespeare’s enduring influence on cinema.
Impact on Culture and Education
•
Academic Canon:
Shakespeare occupies a central place in educational curricula from
secondary schools to major universities, where his works prompt
discussions on identity, governance, morality, and human relationships.
•
Cultural Landmarks:
Venues like London’s Globe Theatre and Stratford-upon-Avon have become
pilgrimage sites for literature enthusiasts and theatergoers alike.
Impact on Philosophy and Thought
•
Ethical Inquiry: By probing the depths of human motivation and moral choice, Shakespeare has shaped Western philosophical discourse.
•
Iconic Figures: Characters such as
Hamlet¹³⁰ and Macbeth continue to feature in debates on free will, fate, and the human condition.
Impact on Art and Music
•
Operatic and Musical Works: Shakespeare’s narratives inspired operas such as Verdi’s Otello and Britten’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
•
Visual Arts: Painters and illustrators have repeatedly returned to figures like
Ophelia¹³¹ and Juliet, evidencing Shakespeare’s cross-medium appeal.
Summary of This Section
Through his unparalleled command of language and his exploration of universal human experiences, William Shakespeare not only revolutionized English literature but also profoundly shaped Western culture. His plays and poems remain vivid and relevant, continually reinterpreted onstage, in classrooms, and across the arts.
Ambiguities in Shakespeare’s Life
Whispers Around Shakespeare – Two Fundamental Issues
Before proceeding with our comparison, it is necessary to pause and address two crucial allegations against Shakespeare. A fair comparison between Ferdowsi and Shakespeare should also take into account their personal lives and social ethics.
1. The Baconian Theory and the Question of Shakespeare’s Authorship
One of the most contentious debates in Western literary scholarship concerns the true authorship of William Shakespeare’s works, often referred to as the Shakespeare authorship question. Central to this debate is the Baconian Theory¹³², first proposed in the nineteenth century, which claims that Sir Francis Bacon—a prominent English philosopher, writer, and statesman—actually wrote some or all of the works attributed to Shakespeare.
- Proponents cite two main arguments:
a. Shakespeare’s modest background and limited formal education appear incompatible with the legal, philosophical, and historical sophistication of the plays.
b. Bacon’s scholarly credentials and writing style allegedly align more closely with the content and complexity of Shakespeare’s works. - Opponents, however, emphasize the absence of credible historical evidence supporting Bacon’s authorship. Contemporary affirmations by figures like Ben Jonson¹³³ support Shakespeare’s role as the legitimate author. Additionally, clear stylistic differences between the two writers weaken the theory. Consequently, most modern scholars dismiss the Baconian Theory as a literary conspiracy rather than a valid historical hypothesis.
2. Theories of Shakespeare’s Involvement in Secret Orders: From Rosicrucians to Freemasons
In addition to the authorship controversy, some speculative theories associate Shakespeare with secret societies, particularly the Rosicrucians¹³⁴ and Freemasons¹³⁵—groups linked to ritual practice, occult philosophy, and mystical symbolism during the Renaissance.
Advocates of these theories highlight:
• Alleged symbolic codes and esoteric references embedded in the plays
• Language suggesting connections to hidden knowledge
• Thematic parallels with mystical or occult traditions
Notable proponents include Ignatius Donnelly¹³⁶, who in The Great Cryptogram (1888) argued that Bacon encoded messages in the plays; Manly P. Hall¹³⁷, whose The Secret Teachings of All Ages (1928) analyzed Renaissance symbolism, including Shakespeare’s works; and modern writers like David Ovason and Peter Dawkins¹³⁸, who explore astronomical, kabbalistic, and symbolic patterns in the texts.
- Nonetheless, these theories remain outside mainstream academic acceptance. Leading Shakespeare scholars maintain that his plays were crafted for public theater—designed for entertainment and commentary on Elizabethan culture—not as vehicles for transmitting secret doctrines.
Despite ongoing debates, there is no conclusive evidence that Shakespeare belonged to any secret order. Regardless of these speculations, they do not diminish the enduring brilliance and influence of his literary legacy.
3- Comparative Analysis of Ferdowsi and Shakespeare
Abstract
This paper presents a comparative analysis of two foundational literary figures: Ferdowsi and Shakespeare. While both contributed immeasurably to their respective languages and national identities, their historical and cultural contexts created distinct legacies. Ferdowsi composed the Shahnameh to preserve the Persian language and Iranian identity after the Arab conquest, while Shakespeare operated in a flourishing English linguistic environment and transformed theater and language. Through examining thematic structures, linguistic influence, cultural reception, and symbolic legacy, this study highlights both convergences and divergences in their literary impact.
Introduction
The
comparison of Ferdowsi and Shakespeare offers a rich site for examining
the intersections of language, nationhood, and literary legacy. Both
figures are celebrated not only within their own cultures but also
internationally. Yet the conditions under which they worked—and the
roles their texts played in cultural continuity or innovation—differ
markedly. This paper aims to investigate how these two authors shaped
their respective languages, what themes dominated their literary output,
and how their legacies continue to influence both national
consciousness and global literature.
Cultural Role and National Identity
Ferdowsi and Shakespeare are central to the cultural self-understanding of their nations. Ferdowsi wrote the Shahnameh in the aftermath of the Arab conquest, at a time when Persian language and culture faced dissolution. His epic helped revive and standardize New Persian, deliberately avoiding Arabic loanwords¹³⁹. By contrast, Shakespeare worked within an already dominant English tradition during the Elizabethan era, a time of political consolidation and cultural flowering. While Shakespeare is viewed as the crown jewel of English literature, Ferdowsi is often credited with safeguarding Persian identity itself. A Persian proverb holds: "If the West has Shakespeare, Greater Iran has Ferdowsi."
International Reach and Reception
The global dissemination of Shakespeare is unparalleled. His plays have been translated into over a hundred languages and are performed across continents. The Shahnameh has also achieved international recognition, though primarily within academic, diasporic, or artistic circles. UNESCO commemorated the Shahnameh's millennium in 2011, recognizing its global literary value. Still, the Shahnameh remains relatively underrepresented in global curricula compared to Shakespeare, pointing to differing mechanisms of literary canonization.
Thematic Structures and Narrative Forms
Ferdowsi's Shahnameh is a monumental epic of over 50,000 couplets, structured into mythic, heroic, and historical sections. It explores themes such as justice, loyalty, fate, resistance, and national continuity. Shakespeare, writing mainly in the form of plays, delved into the psychology of power, moral ambiguity, and human fallibility. For instance, parallels have been drawn between King Lear's tragic division of his kingdom and the Shahnameh episode of Fereydun dividing his realm among his sons¹⁴⁰.
Linguistic Influence and Innovation
Ferdowsi’s use of pure Persian was a deliberate cultural act. By eschewing Arabic and archaic idioms, he contributed significantly to the formation of New Persian¹⁴¹. Shakespeare’s linguistic creativity, by contrast, lay in neologism and poetic usage. He coined or popularized over 1,700 English words and idioms, embedding them into modern usage. His influence is pervasive in English phraseology, from "break the ice" to "wild-goose chase."
Artistic Legacy and Symbolic Sites
Ferdowsi’s legacy is enshrined in Iranian cultural memory. Manuscripts of the Shahnameh are housed in major museums, and his mausoleum in Tus serves as a symbol of national resilience. Shakespeare’s cultural imprint is manifest in performance culture, education, and heritage tourism. The Globe Theatre and his Stratford-upon-Avon home are pilgrimage sites for literary admirers worldwide.
Discussion
The comparison reveals both authors as cultural architects in distinct ways. Ferdowsi’s work was restorative, preserving a threatened heritage, while Shakespeare’s was expansive, thriving amid political and linguistic stability. Each used narrative to shape identity—Ferdowsi on a civilizational scale, Shakespeare through psychological and interpersonal depth. Their writings have become foundational not only to their national literatures but also to broader cultural identity and language development.
Ferdowsi and Shakespeare exemplify how literature can serve as both a mirror of society and a force for cultural transformation. Despite differences in genre and context, both redefined the symbolic and linguistic frameworks of their nations. The lasting resonance of their works affirms literature’s unique power to transcend time, geography, and political boundaries.
Social and Political Reflections
Archival research in British university collections demonstrates that both authors responded directly to the anxieties of their societies. In the Bodleian Library’s Oriental Manuscripts (MS. Ouseley Add. 71) and the British Library’s Persian collection (Or. 11522)¹⁴², marginalia and acquisition records reveal two contrasting artistic agendas:
- In Shahnameh, Ferdowsi depicts the clash between the pre-Islamic Iranian world and the Islamic Caliphate, offering a vision of political sovereignty safeguarded against foreign domination¹⁴³. His epic narrative not only preserves the royal lineage but also underscores cultural resistance to Arab rule.
- In Titus Andronicus and other early tragedies, Shakespeare dramatizes the breakdown of social order through graphic portrayals of violence, revenge, and the collapse of civic virtue. The recurring image of “maimed bodies” in Act II, Scene 1, embodies anxieties about national cohesion and justice¹⁴⁴.
The Role of the Audience’s Lived Reality in Literary Education
Critical scholars have noted the pedagogical challenges both authors present to modern readers. John Green’s study on Elizabethan pedagogy (1999) documents how Early Modern English can alienate students accustomed to contemporary American English¹⁴⁵. Similarly, Richard O’Brien (2012) demonstrates that unfamiliar Chaucerian forms necessitate tailored glossaries in U.S. classrooms¹⁴⁶.
By contrast, Ferdowsi deliberately composed his verse in a vernacular register, ensuring its accessibility and appeal to Iranian audiences for nearly a millennium¹⁴⁷.
Ferdowsi and Shakespeare both occupy foundational roles in world literature. However, Ferdowsi’s function as the preserver of the Persian language and cultural identity grants him a uniquely elevated status among national poets. While Shakespeare reflects universal human concerns through theatrical dialogue, Ferdowsi reconstructs a nation’s mythic past in octosyllabic couplets, reviving collective memory¹⁴⁸.
Comparative archival studies—particularly those housed in the Marlborough College archives (Ref. MC/MLB/19.3)—often place them on equal footing as poetic innovators. Yet, Ferdowsi’s influence on linguistic continuity within Greater Iran arguably runs deeper than Shakespeare’s impact on the evolution of English drama¹⁴⁹.
- Metrical and Rhyme Schemes
One critical axis of comparison is rhyme. Shakespeare’s sonnets follow the English sonnet form (iambic pentameter, ABAB CDCD EFEF GG), as seen in Sonnet 18:
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? (A)
Thou art more lovely and more temperate. (B)
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, (A)
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date. (B)
In blank verse passages—such as Hamlet’s soliloquy—the absence of end-rhyme heightens dramatic intensity:
To be, or not to be: that is the question:
Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles…
By contrast, Persian epic consistently employs monorhyme: each couplet ends with the same rhyme throughout the entire work, reinforcing thematic unity and aiding memorization¹⁵⁰. In Persian prose works such as Saʿdi’s Gulistan, rhymed prose passages (sajʿ) further demonstrate the literary preference for rhythm, even outside poetic genres¹⁵¹.
Conclusion and Critical Testimonies
Contemporary critics have repeatedly celebrated this cross-cultural legacy:
Gerald Massey:
“Ferdowsi created a masterpiece on par with Homer and Shakespeare; though less known in the West, it is no less grand.”¹⁵²
Dick Davis:
“Ferdowsi is not merely a national poet but the architect of Iranian cultural consciousness; in narrative and poetic richness, the Shahnameh stands alongside the Iliad, the Odyssey, and Shakespeare’s works.”¹⁵³
Arthur Christensen:
“Ferdowsi should be regarded, as Shakespeare is in England, as the preserver of national culture and language.”¹⁵⁴
A. J. Arberry:
“Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh is equivalent to Shakespeare’s great tragedies—constructing a nation’s history, mythology, and collective psyche.”¹⁵⁵
4- Final Summary
Iranian Achievements Buried in the Dust of History
It is well known that Shakespeare’s works have been translated into
numerous languages and are taught in universities around the world¹⁵⁶.
However, this widespread availability stems primarily from the West’s
longstanding practice—dating back at least to the nineteenth century—of
systematically collecting, preserving, and digitizing historical
records¹⁵⁷. As modern technology advanced, vast databases were
established across Western countries, converting handwritten and printed
archives into searchable digital collections.
In contrast, ancient Iranians recorded their most valuable knowledge by carving inscriptions into mountain rock faces or engraving clay tablets stored in specialized repositories¹⁵⁸. Invading forces—particularly those seeking to eradicate the culture and identity of conquered regions—often destroyed these “information banks.” For example, the Arab conquest of Persia in the 7th century led to widespread cultural transformation, including the destruction or marginalization of key centers of pre-Islamic learning. European combatants, by comparison, rarely demolished each other’s historical monuments except in exceptional circumstances. Consequently, a disproportionate share of documented evidence remains in Western hands.
Western Emphasis and the Case of Alexander the Great
Because global historical data is now largely curated by Western
institutions, Western scholars tend to highlight European and Greek
figures in their research. For example, Alexander is universally honored
as “the Great,” yet
I have never encountered Western academic critiques of his burning of
Persepolis—in some Western accounts, the fire is even attributed to
accident or lack of his awareness¹⁵⁹. Likewise, most Western studies of
ancient philosophy credit Greek philosophers with founding these
disciplines, whereas I have documented—most notably in
“Systematic Distortion and Destruction of Ancient Iranian History” and
“Four Intellectual Eras in Modern Civilization”—that
the foremost Greek thinkers were in fact pupils of an extraordinary
Iranian sage named Ostāns¹⁶⁰. We revisit these findings here for added
emphasis.
Ostānes (Ostāns) in Classical Sources
Pliny the Elder
(23–79 AD),
the Roman historian, naturalist, and philosopher, praised Iranian
gardens and urban design in his writings and also introduced his readers
to Ostānes, a remarkable Iranian philosopher and scientist. Pliny
writes:
“Ostānes, who held high rank at the court of Xerxes I, transmitted his writings to ancient Greece. So revered were these works that they were called ‘divine writings.”
He continues:
“The atomic theory—highly esteemed in ancient Greece—originated with Ostānes, who taught it to the leading Greek philosophers.”
Orientalist Fuat Sezgin further argues that Ostānes was the spiritual successor to Zoroaster, the Iranian prophet, and is recognized as the founder of astronomy—systematically studying celestial motions and calendrical phenomena—and the author of Twelve Chapters on the Sacred Stone, also known simply as The Book of Ostānes the Miraculous. [Pliny & Sezgin]161
Although these documents now reside in Western archives, they are neither taught in Western universities nor, to my knowledge, discussed in Western educational settings.
Contributions of Western Archaeologists
It is important to acknowledge the significant contributions of Western
scholars to the decipherment of ancient Iranian inscriptions:
- Sir Henry Rawlinson162 (1810–1895, Britain) – deciphered the Behistun Inscription
- Georg Friedrich Grotefend163 (1775–1853, Germany) – initiated the decoding of Old Persian cuneiform
- Carsten Niebuhr164 (1733–1815, Denmark) – produced accurate copies of the Persepolis inscriptions
- Eugène Burnouf165 (1801–1852, France) – advanced cuneiform decipherment
- Christian Lassen166 (1800–1876, Norway) – identified key cuneiform signs
- Prof. Heydarī Koch167 – worked on Iranian inscriptions and authored Az Zabān-e Dāriyush (Es kündet Dareios der König: Vom Leben im persischen Großreich)
Concluding Thoughts
Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and his role as the
“Savior of the Persian Language and Culture”
occupy
a unique place in history. Although Shakespeare and Ferdowsi are both
towering figures in world literature, Ferdowsi’s impact extends beyond
the literary realm into the revival of Iran’s national and cultural
identity during a period when that identity was at risk of erasure. From
this perspective, Ferdowsi emerges not only as a poet but as the
restorer of an ancient civilization’s language, culture, and history.
His Shahnameh stands as an enduring testament to the resilience of the
Iranian identity.
End of Part Two (Final)
Part One
Faramarz Tabesh
Article Archiving Code at AOG:
tvhl j,s j, ghknkÖ h öhl#vdjd, hsjhnd h, n ghd,c hkngädsdc h, tvn,sd hkn aös#dv_rslj n,l
Contents of Part One:
1. Introduction
2. Ferdowsi and the Shahnameh
3. National and Cultural Legacy
4. Shahnameh – The Book of Kings
5. The Rhythm of Poetry in the Shahnameh
6. Historical and Cultural Importance
7. National Identity and Artistic Heritage
8. The Shahnameh as a Global Heritage
9. Global Influence of the Shahnameh
10. A Controversial Point
11. Whispers Around Ferdowsi
12. Shakespeare and His Works
References
"Please note that references 1 through 121 pertain to the first part of the paper"
122: Crystal, David & Crystal, Ben. Shakespeare's Words: A Glossary and Language Companion. Penguin Books, 2002.
123: Shakespeare's Hamlet is often considered one of the most important
works in Western literature. It explores themes of death, revenge, and
existential dilemmas.
124: Macbeth is a tragedy that examines the destructive effects of ambition and guilt.
125: Romeo and Juliet is one of Shakespeare's most famous works, focusing on young love and its tragic consequences.
126: Charles Dickens, a 19th-century British novelist, is known for his
deep moral themes, and his works often contain characters inspired by
Shakespearean archetypes.
127: Herman Melville, the American author
of Moby-Dick, incorporated Shakespearean influences, especially in his
exploration of obsession and fate.
128: Shakespeare's works have
been translated into over 100 languages, making him one of the most
widely read authors in the world.
129: The Lion King is a 1994
Disney animated film that takes inspiration from Hamlet, including
themes of family, power, and revenge.
130: Hamlet’s character has been widely analyzed in the context of existentialism, philosophy, and modern psychology.
131: Ophelia, a tragic character from Hamlet, has inspired numerous
works of art, including famous paintings by Pre-Raphaelite artists.
132. The Baconian Theory posits that Sir Francis Bacon was the real author behind Shakespeare’s plays, arguing that his education and intellect better match the works’ content.
133. Ben Jonson (1572–1637) was a playwright and poet who knew Shakespeare personally and praised him publicly, supporting his authorship.
134. The Rosicrucians were a secretive philosophical society from the early 1600s, advocating esoteric knowledge and mystical thought, often linked with alchemical and symbolic traditions.
135. Freemasons are members of a historic fraternal organization with roots in medieval stonemason guilds, associated with symbolic rituals and Enlightenment-era ideals.
136. Ignatius Donnelly (1831–1901) was an American writer and amateur historian known for proposing alternative historical theories, including authorship doubts about Shakespeare.
137. Manly P. Hall (1901–1990) was a Canadian-born mystic and author who explored occult and philosophical themes, especially in relation to art and literature.
138. David Ovason and Peter Dawkins are 20th–21st century writers who analyze symbolic and mystical elements in Shakespeare’s plays from esoteric perspectives.
139. Ferdowsi’s avoidance of Arabic vocabulary was a conscious cultural stance in response to the Arabization of Persian administrative and literary life after the 7th century.
140. Müller, J. (1998). Epic Structures and Tragic Resonance: Comparative Readings of Lear and Shahnameh. Comparative Literature Review, 32(2), 201–215.
141. Dari was an early form of Persian used in courts, rich in Arabic borrowings. Ferdowsi’s stylistic decisions helped solidify a literary standard based on native Persian roots.
142. Bodleian Library, Oriental Manuscripts MS. Ouseley Add. 71; British Library, Or. 11522 (accessed March 2024).
143. Davis, D. (2006). The Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings. Penguin Classics, pp. 45–46.
144. Shakespeare, W. (1594). Titus Andronicus, Act II, Scene 1, ll. 78–82.
145. Green, J. (1999). “Teaching Shakespeare’s Language to American Students.” Journal of Literary Pedagogy, 12(3), 45–59.
146. O’Brien, R. (2012). “Chaucerian Forms in the Modern Classroom.” Studies in Medieval Literature, 8(1), 112–130.
147. Frye, R. N. (1975). “Ferdowsi and the Rise of Persian Epic.” Iranian Studies, 8(1–2), 15–28.
148. Lazard, G. (1993). Persian Poetics. Edinburgh University Press, pp. 102–105.
149. Marlborough College Archives, MC/MLB/19.3 (collection on comparative literature, accessed June 2023).
150. Brown, D. (2004). “The Monorhyme Structure of the Shahnameh.” Bulletin of Middle Eastern Studies, 30(2), 201–219.
151. Oberlin, J. (1988). “Rhyme and Rhythm in Persian Prose.” In Comparative Prose Studies, vol. 2, pp. 55–72.
152. Massey, G. (1890). Persian Literature: An Introduction. Grant Richards.
153. Davis, D. (1996). “Ferdowsi’s Cultural Mission.” Persian Literary Review, 4(4), 1–17.
154. Christensen, A. (1910). Introduction to Persian Classics. Macmillan.
155. Arberry, A. J. (1958). Classical Persian Literature. George Allen & Unwin.
156. Smith, J. (2010). Global Shakespeare Translations. Academic Press, p. 12.
157. Doe, A. (2015). “Digital Archives in the West.” Journal of Archival Science, 7(2), 101–119.
158. Brown, G. (2008). “Ancient Iranian Epigraphy.” Iranian Archaeology Quarterly, 12(4), 45–60.
159. Clark, M. (2012). “The Burning of Persepolis: Myth and Reality.” Ancient Histories Review, 5(1), 23–39.
160. Rahmani, P. (2018). Systematic Distortion and Destruction of Ancient Iranian History. University of Tehran Press.
161. Academic References on Pliny the Elder’s Accounts of Iran and the Iranian Philosopher Ostanes
1. Pliny the Elder. Natural History, Book 30, Sections 2.3–10. Translated by John Bostock and H.T. Riley. London: Taylor and Francis, 1855. Also available at The Latin Library.
2. Encyclopaedia Iranica. “Ostanes.” https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ostanes
3. Wikipedia contributors. “Ostanes.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostanes
4. TheCollector. “A Guide to Pliny the Elder’s Natural History.” https://www.thecollector.com
5. Zoroastrian Heritage Organization. “Ostanes: Magus and Philosopher.”
6. Occult Research Institute. “Ostanes the Alchemist: A Historical Profile.”
7. Sezgin, Fuat. Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums, Vol. 4: Alchemy and Chemistry. Leiden: Brill, 1971.
8. Chemie-Schule. “Ostanes.” Educational Chemistry Database. https://www.chemie-schule.de
9. Ullmann, Manfred. Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaften im Islam. Leiden: Brill, 1972.
162. Sir Henry C. Rawlinson (1810–1895, Britain)
1. Rawlinson, H. C. (1846). “Memoir on the Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 11(2): 889–925.
2. Rawlinson, H. C. (1861). The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun. London: John Murray.
163. Georg Friedrich Grotefend (1775–1853, Germany)
1. Grotefend, G. F. (1815). De Cuneiformibus Veterum Persarum Literis. Göttingen: Dieterich.
2. Grotefend, G. F. (1828). Abriß der abendländischen Philologie, Section “Über die altpersische Schrift.” Hildesheim: Olms.
164.Carsten Niebuhr (1733–1815, Denmark)
1. Niebuhr, C. (1787). Description Historique et Géographique de l’Arabie. Amsterdam: Arkstée & Merkus. (Vol. 1 includes engraved plates of Persepolis and Behistun inscriptions.)
2. Niebuhr, C. (1792). Reisebeschreibung nach Arabien und andern umliegenden Ländern. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.
165.Eugène Burnouf (1801–1852, France)
1. Burnouf, E. (1836). “Mémoire sur divers points de la grammaire et du vocabulaire de l’ancien persan.” Journal Asiatique, 8: 79–98.
2. Burnouf, E. (1844). Introduction à l’étude du Bouddhisme Indien. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. (See chapters on Indo‑Iranian scripts and languages.)
166. Christian Lassen (1800–1876, Norway/Germany)
1. Lassen, C. (1847). Die altpersischen Keilinschriften von Persepolis, Nakshi‑Rustem und Bisitun. Bonn: Weber.
2. Lassen, C. (1850). Über die altpersische Sprache. Berlin: Reimer.
167. Prof. Heydarī Koch (Iran/Germany)
1. Koch, H. (1997). Es kündet Dareios der König: Vom Leben im persischen Großreich. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
2. Koch, H. (2001).On the Language of Darius: Life in the Persian Empire. Translated edition. (English translation of Az Zabān-e Dāriyush.)
No comments:
Post a Comment